The female midwife was known as an Accoucheuse

Description of the Agricultural Labourer as supplied by Mike Walsh, Dilwynian and researcher

The Times, that ever ready remedy for all wrongs, has, from time to time exposed the many hardships which the rural labourer has endured.  Many reporters cited “high colouring” when arguing that Labourers were the worse fed;  clothed;  housed, and worst of all worse taught than anyone else.  This was not strictly true, but there was indeed a grain of truth and it was enough to induce the Clergy, Landlords and Tenants to try to change things.

Charity and private action coupled with Legislature ensured some progressive movement especially the amendment of the Poor Law, brought about when labourers rioted destroying thrashing machines in an attempt to obtain bread on cheaper terms.

In 1832 a labourer was usually dependant on the goodwill of the overseer, and legally bound to the parish where he lived, and from which if he left in search of better employment he was liable to be sent to prison as a rogue and a vagabond.

Entering the Navy was not a good idea either, because there he faced hardships greater than at home – the home being a timber framed cottage with walls of wattle and daub;  one room up and one down, with no flooring downstairs and no ceiling to bedroom or kitchen.  Schooling was out of the question for the labourers’ children.

Following the passing of the amendment to the Poor Law there was a steady improvement;  Labourers were taught to save and invest their hard earned wages, and Penny Clubs, Savings Banks and Benefit Societies were established in rural villages.

Parliament extended money grants for education to small village schools, and boys who obtained full tuition beyond the age of 10 were able to find work as railway clerks or porters – positions way above that of their fathers.

Gradually the lot of the Agricultural Labourer improved – they could never expect to be paid as well as skilled artisans but their lot became a great deal easier.

News – 19th century Labourers

17th June 1878
“A man named Stringer, described as a Farm Labourer from Herefordshire, has been arrested at Kidderminster on the charge of being concerned with the murder of Miss Jane Hannah Jay aged 32, whose body was found some weeks ago in Dinmore Wood, about seven miles from Hereford, in a state of advanced decomposition. The cause of arrest was certain statements which Stringer made in a public house. At the inquest, Miss Jay’s brother, Edward (a farmer) said that Miss Jay was rational if a little flighty, and that she had had an affair with a farmer. She had been staying at the Kerry Arms Hotel for some months, and it was said that she sometimes stayed out all night and was “strange in her habits”; she also owed the proprieter a large amount of money. On the night of her disappearance, she was seen walking towards the wood.”

October 1889
“At Weobley police court, Robert George Galliers was charged with impersonating a policeman and entering premises without lawful authority. Mr. Pritchard, a farmer, deposed that the defendant came to him after dark stating that the local policeman being away, he had been telegraphed for to search for a person who had stolen some eggs and dripping fat from the shop of Mrs. Watkins, Bush Bank, and that he was on the scent of a hop-picking woman. He said that he was a policeman, and asked for the witness to accompany him with a light…which he did. They went into a building where some hop pickers employed by a neighbouring farmer, Mr. H. Parry, were sleeping. The defendant assumed a gruff and imperious air, and proceeded to question the women, then removing the headwear from one of them saying that she must be the one. He then said she was not the woman he wanted and left, dispensing with the services of the farmer and his light. The Bench imposed a fine of 28s.”

Traditionally, willow stems were used to make all manner of baskets, in all sizes and shapes.

It was considered to be a therapeutic occupation, and sometimes patients in lunatic asylums spent many a long hour weaving baskets.

He was an officer of the law, and dealt with minor offences in the area – he was a fairly important chap but  not necessarily well educated.

The Beadle was instantly recognisable in his state-coat and large hat;  he carried a big staff in one hand and a small whippy cane in the other, and it seems that a prerequisite for job was a dislike of children…….Charles Dickens did his research well!    He was appointed by the vestry, but actually had little authority although he had many chores such as acting as town crier and keeping order at church services, as well as dealing with recalcitrant children and parishioners.

Many cottages still bear the name “Old Forge” or “The Smithy” although few still have working equipment. Most of the business came from farriery and unlike in modern times, horses would be walked to the forge and line up awaiting their turn…….sometimes it would be a very long day indeed for the farrier, who frequently worked from dawn until dark. Blacksmiths also made all manner of things ranging from nails to ploughshares and axes, wheel rims to chains and garden implements, and they were a vital part of the community. Very often the craft was passed down from father to son.

People who were Blacksmiths

• Bankruptcies - Blacksmiths

   

  In spite of the fact that Blacksmiths, or Farriers, were in huge demand because of the importance of sound horses etc. there were still a great many bankruptcies

   

  Joseph Green	September 1848	Blacksmith	Hunsdon Green, Herefordshire
  Thomas Knowles	August 1862	Blacksmith	Collington nr. Bromyard, Herefordshire
  James Lane	March 1864	Blacksmith	Upper Sapey, Herefordshire
  James Fletcher	February 1866	Blacksmith	Eardisley, Herefordshire
  J.W. Magness	April 1867	Blacksmith	Ashperton, Herefordshire
  W. Duggan	November 1867	Blacksmith	Brilley, Herefordshire
  Charles Buck	August 1882	Blacksmith	Garway Common, Herefordshire
  William James Thompson	October 1883	Blacksmith	Leinthall Starks, Herefordshire
  William Henry Hodges	November 1886	Blacksmith	Rushall, nr Much Marcle, Herefordshire
  James Barker Parish	August 1893	Blacksmith	Weobley, Herefordshire
  Thomas Robins	May 1899	Blacksmith	Madley, Herefordshire

   

   

   

  Read More >

The local brewers were supplied with hops grown in huge quantities around the County, and these days Herefordshire still provides hops on a grand scale.

BREWERY BANKRUPTS
September 1847
John Jones, Brewer. Ledbury

Brickmakers and the bricklayers were skilled craftsmen, and in Herefordshire much of the raw material was processed from Downtonian Red Marl with bricks sometimes being made on the site of the building being constructed.

For a period between 1784 and 1850 a brick tax was in force, and the brickmakers response was to increase the size of the bricks thus reducing the number used and therefore the tax.

At Whitney on Wye in Herefordshire a toll is still taken, and it is one of the few remaining tax-free toll bridges in Britain.

Until relatively recent times when new slaughtering regulations came into force, in villages and towns all over Herefordshire the sight of farm animals being quietly herded through to the back of butcher shops was part of day to day life, and I cannot ever remember seeing or hearing any distressed animals.
Here in Herefordshire we are still lucky in that a great many of our butchers source their meat from very local farmers, and the animals have but a short distance to travel to the nearest slaughterhouse.

April 1844 News from a Ledbury Butcher

A Herefordshire Butcher, one of the lieges of Ledbury, had the carcass of a calf mangled by a Lawyer’s dog. The “injured individual” called upon the owner of the offending animal to ask his advice. The Lawyer, on hearing the facts told him that he was entitled to compensation. “Then – you must pay me 4s 6d” said the Butcher exultantly “for it was YOUR dog”. “Very Well” replied the attorney, at the same time laying down the money, which his client pocketed in great glee and was then taking his leave. “Stay” commanded his advisor, your have to pay me 6s 8d for my advice!” The countenance of the knight of the cleaver fell instantaneously. The sunshine of his face was overcast by a thundercloud, but he was fairly caught and there was no escape. He paid the fee and left the house 2s 2d poorer that when he crossed it’s threshold.

People who were Butchers

• Bankruptcies - Butchers

   

  These bankruptcies were spread out over Herefordshire, and didn’t seem to be confined to any particular area

  John Lane the younger	November 1813	Butcher, Dealer	Bodenham, Herefordshire
  S. Redding	May 1815	Butcher	Colwall, Herefordshire
  T. Powell	April 1818	Butcher	Leominster, Herefordshire
  J.Morgan	November 1828	Butcher	Bromyard, Herefordshire
  J. Wellington	May 1840	Butcher	Ross on Wye, Herefordshire
  Robert Pye	March 1848	Butcher	Weston Under Penyard, Herefordshire
  E. Smith	August 1851	Butcher	Eaton Bishop, Herefordshire
  R. Little	March 1853	Butcher	Lea, Herefordshire
  Elijah Savory	November 1857	Butcher	Ledbury, Herefordshire
  E. Yapp	February 1859	Butcher	Leominster, Herefordshire
  John Griffiths	January 1862	Butcher	Kington, Herefordshire
  William Thorne	Janurary 1863	Butcher	Coddington, Herefordshire
  Thomas Phillips	February 1863	Butcher	Byton, Herefordshire
  Charles Edwards	July 1863	Butcher	Kington,Herefordshire
  Adam Clarke	April 1864	Butcher	Ledbury, Herefordshire
  Henry Harvey	December 1864	Butcher	Hentland, Herefordshire
  William Spencer	December 1865	Butcher	Sutton, Herefordshire
  William Kedward	May 1867	Butcher	Kington, Herefordshire
  William Harding	May 1869	Butcher	Much Marcle, Herefordshire
  G. Lloyd	May 1876	Butcher	Goodrich, Herefordshire
  Charles Henry Smith	August 1876	Butcher	Bromyard, Herefordshire
  J. Baskerville	October 1877	Butcher	Wellington, Herefordshire

   

  December 1865

   

   

  John Lane the younger November 1813 Butcher, Dealer Bodenham, Herefordshire
  S. Redding May 1815 Butcher Colwall, Herefordshire
  T. Powell April 1818 Butcher Leominster, Herefordshire
  J.Morgan November 1828 Butcher Bromyard, Herefordshire
  J. Wellington May 1840 Butcher Ross on Wye, Herefordshire
  Robert Pye March 1848 Butcher Weston Under Penyard, Herefordshire
  E. Smith August 1851 Butcher Eaton Bishop, Herefordshire
  R. Little March 1853 Butcher Lea, Herefordshire
  Elijah Savory November 1857 Butcher Ledbury, Herefordshire
  E. Yapp February 1859 Butcher Leominster, Herefordshire
  John Griffiths January 1862 Butcher Kington, Herefordshire
  William Thorne Janurary 1863 Butcher Coddington, Herefordshire
  Thomas Phillips February 1863 Butcher Byton, Herefordshire
  Charles Edwards July 1863 Butcher Kington,Herefordshire
  Adam Clarke April 1864 Butcher Ledbury, Herefordshire
  Henry Harvey December 1864 Butcher Hentland, Herefordshire
  William Spencer December 1865 Butcher Sutton, Herefordshire
  William Kedward May 1867 Butcher Kington, Herefordshire
  William Harding May 1869 Butcher Much Marcle, Herefordshire
  G. Lloyd May 1876 Butcher Goodrich, Herefordshire
  Charles Henry Smith August 1876 Butcher Bromyard, Herefordshire
  J. Baskerville October 1877 Butcher Wellington, Herefordshire

  Read More >

His duties in the 19th century included looking after the wine cellar and ensuring that the bottles were kept in the best condition;  he also had the nerve wracking task of cleaning and caring for the crystal glasses, china,  silver and gold.

Generally, the Butler oversaw all the other servants alongside the Housekeeper and he made sure that the household ran smoothly – his daily duties were many, and he was the chap who announced the arrival of guests;  waited at table;  locked up at night/opened up in the morning;  took care of the master’s clothes and wound the many clocks in the house.

Although the Butler had no rigid uniform, he was expected to be always dressed impeccably, and generally when waiting at tea and dinner he would wear a white shirt with a black waistcoat.  Gloves were nearly always worn, usually white and made of cotton.

If there was no Valet employed by the master, then the Butler would assume this role – he would also act as Valet for male guests.

The Daily Routine of the Butler

At crack of dawn the Butler would ensure that the dining room was ready for breakfast, including setting the table in households where footmen were in short supply.  He would then serve the breakfast after which the master would issue orders for the day.

He himself would carefully take away the china and plate for cleaning.

At mealtimes, the Butler laid the table and when the meal was ready he announced to the family and guests that lunch was served.  He always stood behind the master’s chair, ready to supervise the serving of the meal and to ensure that all wishes were catered for smoothly.

He made sure that all the fires were lit and maintained as and when necessary, and was always ready to answer the door or a summons by the bell.

The Wine Cellar

This is where the Butler had to show exceptional skill and knowledge.  He suggested appropriate purchases to his master, and had to know the price and qualities of each wine……he alone was in charge of the cellar, and he kept a log of each bottle, showing when bought and when it had been drunk.

The master of the household had to be able to trust his Butler implicitly to not only spend money wisely on excellent wines, but also to keep those wines in top condition – a bad wine selection at dinner could make the owner of the household a laughing stock!

Sometimes the wine came ready bottled, and sometimes the Butler had to fine down the wine in wood before bottling it himself.

Nonetheless, the rural furniture makers developed styles of their own and the skill required was considerable.

They worked each piece from start to finish, using hand tools and their own knowledge of how to use wood, and in fact the rural Cabinet Maker probably survived the arrival of machinery after the industrial revolution much better than the city Cabinet Makers.  (Apart of course, from those outstanding makers such as Thomas Chippendale and Thomas Sheraton!)

Charwomen were known as the invisible servants of nineteenth century country house communities, who were hired to perform part time or casual labour – they were invisible to both the family and their guests. However, far from being insignificant, Charwomen were essential components of the country house community, and were indispensable.

People who were Coachbuilders

Coachbuilder Bankrupts

Frequently the Coachman would be afforded accommodation close to the main house and stables, and he would be required to take care of the maintenance of any coach or carriage as well as the horses, and be available to drive whenever needed.

The Coachman not only had to be a proficient and careful driver, he also needed to be honest as he was entrusted with the purchase of good quality hay, straw and feed for the horses, and he needed an extensive knowledge of equine care.  He had to be able to recognise and treat simple ailments, but understand too when more specialised help should be sought

If the Coachman was not lucky enough to have the services of a Groom then the total care of the horses and stables fell to him, as well as all the cleaning of the carriage/s and the tack.

When the household was large there were often several horses and ponies and many different carriages, and in this case the Coachman would have several stablemen or boys under him.  He would supervise and organise the daily work and make sure that the horses were properly cared for and exercised if necessary;  if any of the men failed to meet strict standards, or mistreated the horses, then the Coachman had the authority to fire them on the spot.  He would also have a man whose sole job was to clean, repair and take care of all the harnesses, saddles and bridles.

There was at least one in each village and more in the larger towns – making wooden barrels for the storage of food and drink. The expertise and sheer physical strength required to make casks well and completely watertight meant that the apprenticeship was necessarily long…….about 7 years in fact – but this produced a man who was able to work without drawings or instructions, and who could fashion a wooden container for any purpose purely by eye and skill.

By careful cultivation of certain trees, and regular harvesting of “poles” that grew from coppice stools (basically, stumps that kept sending out new shoots) a plentiful supply of wood was ensured. These coppices, or copse, can still be seen around Herefordshire today although few are still worked; some still sport their protective hedges and ditches, or walls, which were placed to help prevent damage by livestock or wild animals.

People who were Curriers

Currier Bankrupts:

Butler

Along with the Housekeeper, the Butler was the most important member of staff;  he was in charge of all the other male members of staff,  and was responsible for ensuring that every meal upstairs ran smoothly.  Apart from general waiting duties, usually assisted by a Footman, he would announce when meals were ready , and keep a watchful eye on proceedings, serving wine as necessary,  until pudding had been served when he would go to the drawing room to see to the fire and make sure that everything was ready for when his employers finished their meal.

The Butler was in charge of paying bills and to some degree, looking after the other servants, but his most important duties lay in the wine cellar;  he needed to be very well versed in the quality of different wines, and how best to store them, along with whiskies etc., and it was he who would also bring up whatever was needed each day, making sure that absolutely every removal from the cellar was recorded in the cellar book.  Wines were not often bought ready bottled, and the Butler had to know exactly how to fine the wine, and also how to bottle it, lay it down and record it so that he knew exactly when it might be ready to drink.

He was responsible for locking up the house at night after the household had retired to bed, and would ensure that all fires were safe and all candles extinguished.

Coachman

The Coachman may have been in charge of grooms and stable boys, or perhaps in smaller households would have been working on his own.

His responsibility was  not only to be a skilful driver of carriages, but also supremely knowledgeable in all matters concerning the care of horses and ponies;  he would have needed a basic veterinary knowledge, but must also have known when to call in help, and he needed to make sure that the carriage and harness or saddlery was kept clean – whether he did it himself or supervised the stable boy.

The stables had to be kept tidy and clean, and the horses and ponies needed to be well turned out at all times in case they were needed at short notice;  if they were not needed at all on any day, then the Coachman and/or the grooms would need to exercise them in order to keep the fitness levels up and the excitability down.

Anyone who has owned horses knows the hard work and long hours that go into ensuring their comfort and welfare, and if the Coachman was on his own then his day would have been long indeed.  On top of this, he might have been called upon to wait at table, or ride out with members of the household.

The Coachman’s main duty however was to drive the coach or carriage, and he had to do this in a manner that was comfortable for the passengers as well as least tiring for the horses.  A good Coachman knew his horses well, and made it his business to quickly get to know any new arrivals in the stables – by knowing their likes, dislikes, foibles and preferences he would be able to place them in the most suitable position in the traces and get the very best out of them with the least effort.  In the same way that a pilot checks every detail of his plane before climbing into the cockpit, the Coachman would walk around his carriage checking the wheels and inspecting the harnesses and traces before taking up his position in the driving seat.

Horses and carriages were valuable commodities, and a good Coachman was worth his weight in gold.

Cook

The Cook employed by large households was in total charge of her kitchen, and was responsible for overseeing everything that went on therein. She had to not only be a superb cook, but also had to be obsessively clean with almost limitless stamina……..getting up at the crack of dawn was normal, as was not retiring until late in the evening.
Very often she would have a Kitchen Maid and a Scullery Maid working beneath her, and maybe an under Cook too if she was lucky which would have helped to reduce her work load.
The Lady of the house would suggest menus for the day first thing in the morning, and Cook would then source the necessary food and set about preparation whilst delegating tasks to the servants beneath her. She also oversaw the servants’ meals in the kitchen, but would leave the finally clearing, cleaning and scrubbing to the Scullery Maid.

Dairy Maid

Not many households ran to a dairy maid, but generally her duties were to ensure constant supplies of dairy products such as milk, butter and cream.

She would have a dairy to work in, which was usually thick walled and set apart from the house in a shady place, and it had to be kept scrupulously clean along with the tools of her trade, i.e. churns, milk pails, sieves, pans, marble dishes, wooden bowls, butter moulds and patters.

Sometimes the Dairy Maid was required to milk the cows if they belonged to the estate, but usually she was given the milk for the day by the cowman and she would then deal with it as necessary – churning some for butter, and skimming some for cream, and then giving it to the cook for use in the kitchen.  This sounds simple, but in fact butter churning was a laborious process and it was easy for things to go wrong, with the result that the butter would appear unappetising, and if she was lax in her hygiene then things could become rather nasty.

Footman

The footman may have been the only male servant or one of several, but either way his duties were many.

If there was a butler in the household, then the footman answered to him, and assisted him at mealtimes with laying the tables, waiting at mealtimes and keeping all cutlery and glasses etc. spotlessly clean.  He would be required to answer the door to visitors, and carry out his duties in a quiet and unobtrusive manner whilst turning a deaf ear to conversations that he inevitably overheard.  He would be smartly dressed in livery provided by his master, and would wear spotless white gloves at all times when upstairs.

He would serve morning coffee and afternoon tea to his employers and guests, and was responsible for ensuring that any requests were promptly dealt with.

If he was the only male servant, then he would carry out many of the duties normally done by a valet and butler, so his workload would be heavy.

Housemaid

Think modern day cleaner, but without all the modern aids  and virtually no time off!   The housemaid’s work was incredibly strenuous, starting early in the morning, and not finishing until mid evening at best.

Not only did she sweep, dust, polish and generally keep all rooms spotless, she was also expected to clean out the grates every morning then lay and light the fires during the winter;   and in some households she would also have to wait at table at mealtimes, clearing up afterwards and putting the room to rights.

Making the beds was part of the job description, as well as cleaning the bedrooms, and in her “spare time” she might be expected to mend torn curtains or repair broken ornaments (which hopefully were not damaged at her hand), and she made up all polishes;  stain removers, etc. etc. herself.

Housekeeper

The Housekeeper was the most important member of staff, and was in charge of overseeing all the domestic servants, including looking after their welfare and day to day problems.  She was in a highly trusted position, and was in charge of the book keeping and payment of bills etc. as well making sure that meals for the family  were prepared to the highest standard and that the house was running satisfactorily.

Like any good manager, the Housekeeper had to act in a way that promoted respect but she also had to be approachable with a kindly nature, and possess common sense so that she could deal satisfactorily with grievances or troubles amongst the servants.

Lady’s Maid

The Lady’s Maid was required to possess impeccable discretion, as once she gained the trust of her mistress she was taken into many confidences much as if she was a true friend but of course she was not, and she had to remain polite at all times, basically only speaking when spoken to.

Mainly though, her role was not only to dress her mistress but often also to make or mend the clothes and hats;  she had to be proficient in removing dirt from all manner of fabrics, and had to make sure that articles of clothing were put away in good order ready for wearing again.

All apparel from hats to boots had to be carefully checked for stains or tears after each wearing, and dealt with accordingly before being hung up or put away;  jewellery had to be carefully cleaned and locked away after use.

The Lady’s Maid was required to keep the dressing room  clean, tidy and warm,  and also to ensure that all bed linen was kept in good repair, as well as making or sourcing toiletries as needed.

Hairdressing skills were most important, and most lady’s maids had thorough training from professionals before taking up duties, but of course fashion constantly changed and they would have to keep up with the times.  She would also have to make up shampoo and pomades, and endless lotions and potions to promote healthy shiny hair – no popping to the shop for a bottle of conditioner!

Laundry Maid

Duties of a Laundry Maid are pretty self explanatory, and although professional facilities were available in many towns and cities, most households preferred the gentler ministrations of home washing.

There was a wash house and a drying room (I remember these from my childhood), with large tubs fed hot water by a boiler or furnace, as well as a sink with cold water,  and an area for a mangle as well as clothes horses for airing and drying.  (I remember these too – they were perfect for upending, draping with a sheet and using as a tent!).

The laundry maid took care of all the washing much as we do today, except of course she did not have any modern aids to help her, and it was all just a hard slog from start to finish with different fabrics and colours having to be treated differently.  Any stains were dealt with by various methods prior to washing, and the act of washing itself was incredibly hard on the hands – leaving them sore and raw.  Much of the washing was done with harsh soaps and water almost too hot to bear, and each item had to be scrubbed between the hands;  it must have been an incredible relief to get to the silks and wools which required cool water and less harsh treatment.

The washing process started on Mondays and in a large household was not completed until Fridays, when the ironing would start, and the wash house would be scrubbed down and thoroughly cleaned ready for use again the following week.

Nursemaids

Basically the Nursemaid was the mother once weaning of the child/children had commenced.  All the usual care of an infant, including washing;  dressing;  feeding and entertaining etc. was included in the duties of a Nursemaid, and she was expected to be endlessly patient with her charges whilst bringing them up in a proper manner.  Any form of punishment was out of the question, no matter what the misdemeanour, but any form of “wantonness” had to be quashed immediately.

Also, a certain level of first aid was necessary, as well as knowledge of childhood illnesses and their symptoms.    Hmmmm, Nursemaids were special people indeed.

As well as taking care of the children, the Nursemaid was responsible for all things to do with the nursery, including cleaning, lighting fires, making beds etc. and ensuring that their charges were clean and tidy at all times, especially for their daily visit to or by their mother and father.

One has to consider how devastating it must have been for any of these ladies who lost their posts within a family for whatever reason – their relationship with the children they looked after was indeed the same as any mother.

Scullery Maid

This position was the lowest rung on the household ladder and was normally taken up by young girls;   and the work was extremely hard involving not only scrubbing all the pots and pans, dishes etc., but also scouring the ovens and kitchen floor;   dealing with the other servants’ chamber pots and lugging pails of hot water for the household to have baths.

The scullery maid had to get up very early in order to stoke up the kitchen range and set water to boil ready for morning tea, and then scrub the kitchen, pantry, and scullery floors before the cook arrived.  The rest of the day was taken up with washing dishes and scrubbing pans;  laying the servants’ table at meal times and making sure that the kitchen remained spotlessly clean at all times.   Endless drudgery in other words, but sometimes she would be required to help the kitchen maid with simple tasks such as preparing vegetables which must have been something of a relief for her hands after all that scrubbing.

Sick Nurse

There were no true qualifications for this post, except compassion and common sense along with an even temper and a rudimentary knowledge of nursing.  The sick nurse could well be another member of the household, such as a housemaid, and she would be expected to keep the sick room spotlessly clean and well aired, as well as tending to the needs of the patient.

Of course, if truly serious illness struck a household, then a professional nurse would be paid to come in and take care of the patients.

Valet

The valet was the male equivalent of the lady’s maid, and like her he would be expected to be discrete in all things.

He would begin the day ensuring that his master’s dressing room was ready, clean and tidy and that the fire was well alight, and would then lay out the clothing to be worn that morning.  He was also responsible for setting out the shaving equipment, but would rarely be expected to carry out the actual shaving, although he did need to tidy up his master’s hair and cut it when necessary.

Once his master was dressed and brushed down, he would once again tidy up the dressing room ready for any further change of clothing throughout the day.

The valet was responsible for receiving and passing on messages as promptly as possible, and for carrying out any duties according to his master’s wishes.

Wet Nurse

Sometimes after a mother had given birth, she was unable (or unwilling) to feed her baby herself, and in this case a wet nurse was often used.

A wet nurse was usually young and of course healthy in all respects, as well as being scrupulously clean and fully understanding of what she should and shouldn’t eat herself whilst feeding a baby;  the mother would often oversee the meals of her wet nurse herself, and interestingly a “must have” for a wet nurse was regular pints of porter or stout.

A good dressmaker would prosper and eventually take on young girls as apprentices or just to assist, however in order to reach this level she would have to show exceptional ability as virtually every woman and girl knew how to sew and it was the first thing they thought of turning to as a means to making money. As a result, competition was high and remuneration low for the less than excellent seamstress. Still, it was respectable work for the middle classes who would not have contemplated rough labour or work as a domestic servant.

It was the job of the Drover to ensure that his charges not only survived the journey, but also arrived in good condition. On top of this responsibility was the safekeeping of large amounts of money – cash collected on the sale of the animals – and it was by no means unheard of for a returning Drover to be attacked and robbed. (In fact this happened so regularly that eventually droving banks were set up along the routes – one of which was called The Black Ox after the Welsh cattle, and which later was taken over by Lloyds) No wonder then that one required a licence to become a Drover, with qualifications including being over 30 and “settled” in marriage.

Twice a year, in Autumn and Spring, the Drovers gathered herds of cattle together from various farms, often consisting of several hundred animals, and those that were being taken on the long journey to the South East would be shod to prevent them becoming footsore. A farrier would sometimes accompany the herd on horseback to supply, fit and replace the strange shoes (cues) which were basically two half moons shaped to fit the curved cloven hooves. There were also special shoeing stations, at Kington and Hay on Wye for those animals crossing the border from Wales into Herefordshire. The animals were not driven hard and were allowed to graze along the way to minimise loss of condition, and overnight stops were carefully chosen, – for example at Bromyard there were large ponds for watering the animals and a rather nice hostelry! Mind you, only the head Drover slept in comparative luxury and his men with their attendant cattle dogs slept in the open with their charges. Drovers would pick out tall landmarks, such as distinctive trees in a cluster, near to good overnight stopping places so that on future drives they could make a bee line for them, and very often there would be secure fields in which to park the cattle for the night, at a charge of one ha’penny per head.

He was also required to be proficient in book keeping and knowledgeable about all things farm related – right down to the milking of a cow.  Many estate owners wanted their Bailiffs to be able to work on their own initiative as well as coming up with new money saving ideas.

Very often a farm labourer gained the trust of the farmer, and after some years was promoted to the post of Bailiff.

The fellmonger (skin seller) buys sheep skins and cow hides from the abattoirs, removes the hair and wool by chemical processes, then sells the products on to the Tanners and Wool Merchants.

Fellmongers usually belonged to a guild which regulated the quality of the workmanship etc.

In the early 1800s records show that there several flax fields in Herefordshire but there is not much information on linen weaving.  It must have been going on though, because in the 16th century the treatment of flax in water at Leominster was banned, and a little later people were fined if they washed flax in many of the Herefordshire rivers due to the contamination it caused to water supplies.

In common with many occupations involving crop dust, flax dressers were prone to developing “Flax Dresser’s Disease” which was essentially chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

The flax hackle was/is essentially a handled board with metal tines, rather like an extremely coarse hairbrush, which separates the flax fibres until they are fine enough to be spun into cloth.

The original shotguns morphed from duelling pistols, which were of necessity made exceptionally well, and the sporting guns which evolved from these were made with the same care and attention, although probably the gunmakers in rural towns were nowhere near the high standard of their London or large city counterparts.

The wealthier amongst the population enjoyed country pursuits such as fishing, shooting and hunting, and when the countryside became easier to get to due to the new railways etc., more and more people were eager to join in the fun.

It was common for Lords of the Manors to hold Shoots on their estates, and these became hugely popular social occasions, resulting in an explosion of gunmakers in towns and cities alike, who would not only make the guns but also repair or personalise them.

The original shotguns morphed from duelling pistols, which were of necessity made exceptionally well, and the sporting guns which evolved from these were made with the same care and attention, although probably the gunmakers in rural towns were nowhere near the high standard of their London or large city counterparts.

The wealthier amongst the population enjoyed country pursuits such as fishing, shooting and hunting, and when the countryside became easier to get to due to the new railways etc., more and more people were eager to join in the fun.

It was common for Lords of the Manors to hold Shoots on their estates, and these became hugely popular social occasions, resulting in an explosion of gunmakers in towns and cities alike, who would not only make the guns but also repair or personalise them.

Horsebreaker Bankrupts

How lovely it must have been to be brought a cup of tea in the morning, then had your bath run for you whilst your freshly pressed clothes were laid out ready for you to be helped into before your hair was dressed to perfection. What delicious comfort it would have been to know that when you came home after a long night out, the fire would be blazing in your bedroom and your maid would be waiting to make your passage into bed a swift and enjoyable one, all the while knowing that any gossip that you shared would be treated with the utmost discretion.

The Lady’s Maid had to be a skilled seamstress, not only making new dresses of every description but also repairing and caring for old ones and she also had to be a pretty good hairdresser and be willing and able to clean the bedroom and set it fair several times a day.

Meals were taking in the Servants Hall, but the rest of the time the Lady’s Maid could expect to be summoned to help her mistress at any time of day.

A good Mistress would have made life pleasant enough for her servant, but an ill tempered one was a different matter altogether and when looking through census records it is sometimes easy for one to spot which households have a high turnover of servants, and which retain loyal staff for many years.

People who were poets

• John Masefield

  John Masefield – Herefordshire’s much loved poet.

  On Eastnor Knoll by John Masefield

  SILENT are the woods, and the dim green boughs are

  Hushed in the twilight: yonder, in the path through

  The apple orchard, is a tired plough-boy

  Calling the cows home.

   

  A bright white star blinks, the pale moon rounds, but

  Still the red, lurid wreckage of the sunset

  Smoulders in smoky fire, and burns on

  The misty hill-tops.

   

  Ghostly it grows, and darker, the burning

  Fades into smoke, and now the gusty oaks are

  A silent army of phantoms thronging

  A land of shadows.

  John Masefield was born on 1st June 1878 in Ledbury, Herefordshire, in a house called The Knapp which was built by his father at the top end of town (The Homend).  The house is now difficult to spot as it is well hidden behind tall trees.  However, a member of the Masefield family owned and lived in the house at the time that I first wrote this, and he kindly gave permission for us to take a photograph:

  

   

  Tragically, although developers were initially refused permission to demolish the house and build a retirement home, that decision was overturned due to the new Labour Government’s policy, and before too long this historic building will be no more.

  Childhood of John Masefield

  The above poem was a wistful memory of his happy early childhood days which were spent in carefree exploration of the beautiful surrounding countryside – all this was to change. His mother was a clergyman’s daughter who tragically died after giving birth to Norah, John’s youngest sister, when he was only 6, and then less than two years later both of his grandparents died. His father, a local solicitor, could not cope and had a nervous breakdown; he too died shortly afterwards.

  John was entrusted to the care of a his rather unsympathetic Aunt and Uncle, who simply did not understand children.  They lived at the opposite end of Ledbury, at the Priory,

  

  and I suppose that suddenly finding yourself landed with small relatives, and the task of bring them up, would be rather daunting, so some of their decisions may have been made in a mistaken belief that they were doing the right thing.   However, for John who had loved reading from an early age, it must have been heartbreaking when they removed the library of books from his home in an effort to steer him away from thoughts of a career in writing. He had been educated  at Warwick School (then sometimes referred to to as King’s School), Warwick, from January 1888 to July 1891, but at the age of 13 his Aunt sent him to the training ship Conway in the River Mersey, to begin a life at sea;  at first he was less than enthusiastic, but gradually grew to enjoy the life especially as he found that he had the time and the means  to indulge his passion for reading and learning.  From there, at the age of 16, he gained an apprenticeship on a four masted sailing ship, the Gilcruix, and one of his jobs was to record entries in the ship’s journal every day – something he must have loved!   The ship rounded Cape Horn on it’s way to Chile, and our hero experienced sea sickness in a major way for the first time – nothing new or unexpected in those turbulent waters – but  then on top of that was taken ill at Chile with severe sunburn which forced him to be hospitalised.   He returned to England by steamer as a passenger, where he eventually recovered, and at the insistence of his Aunt, who presumably was still worried that he would waste his life writing,  went back to sea working on a ship bound for New York….where he jumped ship and stayed for several years, initially roaming as a vagrant and taking whatever work he could find before landing a job in a carpet factory. All the while he continued to believe in his ability to write.

  This extract from one of his books……..In The Mill……is about that period of his life:

  “In a few days I mastered mistake-finding sufficiently to enjoy it very much and do it competently. I was at it all day long, working at speed; well, that was no hardship to me. From childhood, I had been trained to jump to the order; and speed has always seemed to me to be a vital part of efficiency. The continual movement put an end to my day-dreams about the Merchant Service college. I now was moving about all day long, going from floor to floor, stopping a loom, getting another under way, solving some odd error, or causing something to be set right, and having brief words with weavers now and then about the working of their machines. Most of my joy in the work came from its independence. I was the mistake-finder, running the job pretty much as I liked, trusted t do it well, and knowing that I was trusted. The flattery of this was a continual great delight to me; it was my first command, and full of the liveliest interest. No man can be unmoved by the great concerted energy of many men and women. The roaring thundering clang of the energy of the weaving-rooms was a big and exciting thing. Sometimes I felt that it was an enormous dragon and that my mind was going against it with one little purpose, to get at its secret springs and master it.””

  It is recorded that John (known at the factory as Macey) was a hard and useful worker, and he gained several promotions, but on the day in 1897 that the Supervisor indicated that “Macey” could be given a large area of the factory to run by himself, he was horrified and immediately collected his pay and caught a merchant ship heading back to England where he threw all his energies into his writing. Initially he reported for newspapers, but his days at sea were frequently on his mind and he wrote many sea poems, including the well-known and evocative Sea Fever:  (later editions of this poem included the word “go* in the first line of each verse – as in “I must go down to the seas again…….”

  I must  down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky,

  And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by,

  And the wheel’s kick and the wind’s song and the white sail’s shaking,

  And a gray mist on the sea’s face, and a gray dawn breaking.

   

  I must  down to the seas again, for the call of the running tide

  Is a wild call and a clear call that may not be denied;

  And all I ask is a windy day with the white clouds flying,

  And the flung spray and the blown spume, and the sea-gulls crying.

   

  I must  down to the seas again, to the vagrant gypsy life,

  To the gull’s way and the whale’s way, where the wind’s like a whetted knife;

  And all I ask is a merry yarn from a laughing fellow-rover,

  And quiet sleep and a sweet dream when the long trick’s over.

  Marriage and later life

  John Masefield was often in ill health, and also suffered with depression which was probably partly due to the fact that he wanted to return to the countryside but had to remain in the city where he had found a low paid job in a bank.  When he was 23 he met Constance de la Cherois-Crommelin, who was 13 years his senior but highly educated and more than a match for his literary mind. She was a descendent of the Hugeunots who had left France to escape the persecution of the Roman Catholic church. She must truly have loved John, to have given up her rich and privileged lifestyle for one of relative poverty, and he adored her. They married in 1903 and had two children, a son and a daughter; with much of the money for day to day living coming from Constance. John worked hard writing book reviews, as well as books and plays but wrote little in the way of poetry but it is reported that on a spring day in 1911 he found some Primroses amongst the woods and heard a voice in his head saying “the spring is beginning.” Some weeks later he was once again out for a walk when suddenly a complete poem formed in his head and after rushing home to write it down “The Everlasting Mercy” was born. This narrative poem was published in October of the same year and received unprecedented attention from the critics.

  John Masefield went on to write two more narrative poems and was generally acclaimed to be a genius, with the Edmund de Polignac prize being awarded to him (the monetary value being £100 – a lot in those days) in 1912. Prime Minister Asquith’s daughter’s birthday party in 1913 included such illustrious writers as George Bernard Shaw and Rupert Brooke in the guest list, and John Masefield was also invited.

  When war broke out, John Masefield served in the Red Cross initially in France and then later on a hospital ship at Gallipoli, writing vividly about his experiences. When he returned home he was invited to the USA to lecture on Shakespeare and Chaucer and stayed there for about three months. Masefield spent the rest of the war travelling between England and France, at one time being given an assignment to write about the American medical relief forces on the continent, in the hope that it might sway American support for the war effort. Masefield felt that the American presence in France was pretty useless, he did manage to find some heroism in the American Ambulance services and wrote an article which was published in the May 1917 issue of Harper’s Monthly.

  John Masefield was asked to meet the head of British Military Intelligence in France and was requested to write a full account of the Battle of the Somme.

  During the 1920s, John Masefield and his family found a home near Oxford which was much more suited to his love of the rural life and countryside; he found a new hobby in beekeeping and kept some livestock.

  He wrote prodigious amounts, and his works were regularly being published.

  When Robert Bridges died in 1930 John Masefield was appointed Poet Laureate – John was unsure that he was worthy of such a post but King George V was persuaded by the Prime Minister that he was ideal and John retained the post until his death in 1967……….not quite beating Tennyson for the title of the longest serving poet laureate. He was also granted the Order of Merit by King George V, and had many honorary degrees from Universities throughout Britain. He not only continued to write, but also encouraged others – especially children, and he only began to slow down a little when he developed cataracts in his 70s

  His wife Constance died in 1960 aged 93 after a long illness, and he was so devastated that he became a virtual recluse, although he did continue to write. He himself died in Abingdon on 12th May 1967 from gangrene in his leg, and he was cremated with his ashes being placed in Poets Corner in Westminster Abbey………he was the last poet to be buried there, as there was no more room.

  His poems and his writing are truly beautiful and given his desire to encourage children it is appropriate that the secondary school in Ledbury bears his name as a lasting memorial to a son of the little town.

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The Sawyer’s Mate had the unenviable task of standing in the pit beneath the horizontal log whilst his boss, the Sawyer, stood on top – they each had hold of a handle in order to work the massive saw, and as they worked away all the sawdust would fall down onto the Sawyer’s Mate.

It would have been incredibly hard work, and I have no doubt that this was yet another cause of COPD.

Out of interest, it is said that the terms “Top Dog” and “Under Dog” originated from this pair, with the Top Dog being the Sawyer standing on top of the log, and the Under Dog being the Sawyer’s Mate down beneath the log in the pit.

Not only that, but she had to get up before anyone else, and not go to bed until long after everyone had retired.

Scrubbing was the order of the day – pots;  saucepans;  kettles as well as any steps leading to the outside doors, and then there were all the general utensils and crockery to wash.  She would also keep all the other servants quarters clean as well as constantly washing the kitchen floor.

Other duties included going out to select vegetables as requested by the cook, and then preparing them for cooking.

Depending on how many other servants were employed,  the Scullery Maid could also be expected to clean out all the fires and then relay them ready for lighting – this of course to be done quickly and quietly before the rest of the household awoke.

A typical Day in the life of a Scullery Maid

She would get up around 5.30/6.00 a.m., then after making her bed go to the kitchen to stoke up the range.

Once the other servants were up and about, the Scullery Maid had to collect all their chamber pots, empty them and clean them thoroughly before replacing them in the rooms.

Then the scrubbing really started – the kitchen and all adjoining rooms such as the Scullery and pantries, which all had to be completed before the cook arrived to start breakfast for the servants.  Once breakfast was over, the table had to be cleared and the dishes washed.

Throughout the day it was a constant round of clearing the kitchen table and scrubbing and cleaning to keep the kitchen spotless and the pans constantly available, apart from one hour in the afternoon when the Scullery Maid could catch her breath and have some time to herself.  Whole days off were very rare.

Of course there was no hot water gushing conveniently from a tap, so it made the work all the more hard.

This then was a truly horrible, and very badly paid job, but for many young girls (sometimes even only 9 years old) it was a hopeful rung on the ladder to a better position and most worked their fingers to the bone in an attempt to be noticed and given the chance.

Despite being the lowest of jobs, it did at least give poor girls a roof over their heads and it was better than being stuck in the Work House.

Finally a rather stark description by a chap called Arthur Munby who married a Scullery Maid, and when he first set eyes on her he recorded the scene:

She stood at a sink behind a wooden dresser backed with choppers and stained with blood and grease, upon which were piles of coppers and saucepans that she had to scour;  piles of dirty dishes that she had to wash.  Her frock, her cap, her face and arms were more or less wet, soiled, perspiring and her apron was a filthy piece of sacking, wet and tied round her with a cord.  The den where she wrought was low, damp, ill smelling, windowless, lighted by a flaring gas jet, and, full in view, she had on one side a larder hung with raw meat, on the other a common urinal;  besides the many ugly, dirty implements around her.

Cordwainers were a little more upmarket, and worked only with new leather. The name came from the French “Cordonnier”, meaning Shoemaker, which in itself was derived from Cordoba in Spain where the most wonderful and soft leather was produced. This was known as cordouan leather, so the roots of our name “Cordwainer” is obviouse.

Cobblers didn’t actually make shoes, but repaired them by recycling old leather from worn out shoes and boots.

Snob was first used in the 18th century, and is just another name for a Shoemaker, or his apprentice. These days of course if you call someone a snob it means something entirely different!

Shoemaker News from the Past

 September 20th 1838

Mr. Robert Jones, Shoemaker, of the Post Office Much Marcle, Herefordshire made a plea for help in finding his runaway children:

“A boy aged 15 of thin make, dark brown hair and dark grey eyes, dressed in a smock frock, moleskin trousers and a hairy cap, left his home on 19th August taking with him a little sister named Mary aged 7 years, dressed in a red spotted frock, a blue spotted pinafore, a cambric bonnet, and quarter boots and has not since been heard of.”

Shoemaker Bankrupts

Following this process, the hide would once again be thoroughly washed in the running stream to remove the lime etc. Next a preparation of oak bark and water was made in large pits and the skins would be immersed for several weeks, after which yet another washing process was carried out in the poor old stream. Then came the drying, which was quite critical because it could go badly wrong and a ruined hide was a waste of weeks of work……..dry it too slowly and mould might develop which would ruin the skin, too fast and the skin was unworkable and brittle.
I pity the wives of these Tanners…….every night they would have had to deal with dreadfully stinky men and their clothes when they came home from work! No washing machines or power showers for them of course.

People who were Tanners

Tanner bankrupts

A thatched roof was once the cheapest form of roofing available in Herefordshire and there were a great many experienced Thatchers kept in constant work, but the art of the Thatcher very nearly died out when cheaper and easier roofing became available, such as slate or tiles. However, enough buildings remained with their thatch to ensure that the craft survived, but replacing it these days is not a cheap undertaking.

Up until the late 1800s the Wheelwright was never short of work….however along came the factories, and suddenly people could buy cheaper wagons with a much quicker delivery date. The craft of the Wheelwright went into something of a decline, but some survived and prospered by diversifying into carpentry.

News From the Past – Wheelwrights

In 1905 the house, workshops and buildings belonging to Mr. Thomas Garbett, Wheelwright and Carpenter, were burnt to the ground.

Although the Bromyard Fire Brigade and the Norwich Union fire engine from Worcester attended as quickly as they could, nothing of the buildings could be saved.

Valuables had been removed from the house, but £1000 worth of timber was destroyed – none of it was insured.

People who were Wheelwrights

Wheelwright bankrupts

The whitesmith would finish off, i.e. polish, or make keys etc. from the basic forged state.

Basically he worked the cold forged metal, bringing it back to the original shine or lustre, and made household and agricultural items.

Some Whitesmiths were also skilled in other directions, such as the one who placed an advert in 1835 –

“John Ladmore, Whitesmith, Bell Hanger and Gun Maker of Widemarsh Street Hereford, begs leave most respectfully to inform his friends the public that he has removed from Eign Gate to more commodious premises”

News From Past – Whitesmith

In 1850 George Day, a Whitesmith went to the Barley Mow Inn in Ludlow and asked for a pint of beer – with nobody else around, he took a razor from his pocket and cut his own throat.

The landlady just happened to go back into the room and snatched the razor from George before he could do it again and the surgeon was sent for.

The would was dreadful, but the surgeon did a good job and it was hoped that the injury would not prove to be fatal.

No reason could be found for the attempted suicide, but some four years earlier George Day had been in court concerning alleged cruelty to his apprentice, Herbert James.

Herbert had brought the charge of assault, and said that George Day carried out repeated acts of cruelty and violence towards him.

However when the Magistrates heard George’s account of Herbert being idle and refractory, they dismissed the case and told James to get back to work.  So it was okay then to be cruel and violent if your apprentice was lazy?!

One has to wonder about this – was George a troubled, violent and unpopular man, and could something about this have contributed to his suicide attempt.

The stapler would then sell on the wool to makers of clothing etc.